Generating Keys Are Taking Forever

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Key generation is the process of generating keys in cryptography. A key is used to encrypt and decrypt whatever data is being encrypted/decrypted.

A device or program used to generate keys is called a key generator or keygen.

Generation in cryptography[edit]

Modern cryptographic systems include symmetric-key algorithms (such as DES and AES) and public-key algorithms (such as RSA). Symmetric-key algorithms use a single shared key; keeping data secret requires keeping this key secret. Public-key algorithms use a public key and a private key. The public key is made available to anyone (often by means of a digital certificate). A sender encrypts data with the receiver's public key; only the holder of the private key can decrypt this data.

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Since public-key algorithms tend to be much slower than symmetric-key algorithms, modern systems such as TLS and SSH use a combination of the two: one party receives the other's public key, and encrypts a small piece of data (either a symmetric key or some data used to generate it). The remainder of the conversation uses a (typically faster) symmetric-key algorithm for encryption.

Computer cryptography uses integers for keys. In some cases keys are randomly generated using a random number generator (RNG) or pseudorandom number generator (PRNG). A PRNG is a computeralgorithm that produces data that appears random under analysis. PRNGs that use system entropy to seed data generally produce better results, since this makes the initial conditions of the PRNG much more difficult for an attacker to guess. X force key generator download. Another way to generate randomness is to utilize information outside the system. veracrypt (a disk encryption software) utilizes user mouse movements to generate unique seeds, in which users are encouraged to move their mouse sporadically. In other situations, the key is derived deterministically using a passphrase and a key derivation function.

Many modern protocols are designed to have forward secrecy, which requires generating a fresh new shared key for each session.

Classic cryptosystems invariably generate two identical keys at one end of the communication link and somehow transport one of the keys to the other end of the link.However, it simplifies key management to use Diffie–Hellman key exchange instead.

The simplest method to read encrypted data without actually decrypting it is a brute-force attack—simply attempting every number, up to the maximum length of the key. Therefore, it is important to use a sufficiently long key length; longer keys take exponentially longer to attack, rendering a brute-force attack impractical. Currently, key lengths of 128 bits (for symmetric key algorithms) and 2048 bits (for public-key algorithms) are common.

Generation in physical layer[edit]

Wireless channels[edit]

A wireless channel is characterized by its two end users. By transmitting pilot signals, these two users can estimate the channel between them and use the channel information to generate a key which is secret only to them.^[1] The common secret key for a group of users can be generated based on the channel of each pair of users.^[2]

Optical fiber[edit]

A key can also be generated by exploiting the phase fluctuation in a fiber link.^{[clarification needed]}

See also[edit]

• Distributed key generation: For some protocols, no party should be in the sole possession of the secret key. Rather, during distributed key generation, every party obtains a share of the key. A threshold of the participating parties need to cooperate to achieve a cryptographic task, such as decrypting a message.

References[edit]

1. ^Chan Dai Truyen Thai; Jemin Lee; Tony Q. S. Quek (Feb 2016). 'Physical-Layer Secret Key Generation with Colluding Untrusted Relays'. IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications. 15 (2): 1517–1530. doi:10.1109/TWC.2015.2491935.
2. ^Chan Dai Truyen Thai; Jemin Lee; Tony Q. S. Quek (Dec 2015). 'Secret Group Key Generation in Physical Layer for Mesh Topology'. 2015 IEEE Global Communications Conference (GLOBECOM). San Diego. pp. 1–6. doi:10.1109/GLOCOM.2015.7417477.

(updated 12/03/04 to point to refactored code)

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Generating Keys

It's been just under a month since I've updated the Managed StrongName API, so here's the next set of APIs. This time, I've setup the APIs needed to create a new key suitable for signing. Namely, these are the StrongNameKeyGen and (for Whidbey) StrongNameKeyGenEx APIs. Both APIs work the same way, so I'll describe the newer StrongNameKeyGenEx API, which only adds an extra parameter from the old StrongNameKeyGen version. To start with, lets look at the P/Invoke declaration, from MS.StrongNameNativeNativeMethods.cs:

The parameters for StrongNameKeyGenEx work out as follows:

StrongNameKeyGenerationEx introduces the dwKeySize parameter, which allows you to generate keys of various sizes. However, .NET versions 1.0 and 1.1 will only sign with 1024 bit keys. Whidbey adds support for signing with 2048 bit keys. Both APIs return true if the key was successfully generated, and false if there was an error.

Since there is only a true / false return code, getting more information on error conditions is accomplished through the use of the StrongNameErrorInfo API, whose declaration can be found in MS.StrongNameNativeNativeMethods.cs. The return value from this function is an HRESULT, which can be translated into an Exception through the use of the Marshal.ThrowExceptionForHR, or on Whidbey Marshal.GetExceptionForHR APIs. This is shown in MS.StrongNameUtility.cs

Once you've gotten the key back from StrongNameKeyGenerationEx, you need to copy it into a managed byte array. This can be done with the Marshal.Copy method. However, this still leaves unmanaged memory allocated to your process. In order to release this memory, another P/Invoke declaration from MS.StrongNameNativeNativeMethods.cs is used. StrongNameFreeBuffer simply takes a pointer to the memory that StrongNameKeyGen(Ex) returned to you, and releases it.

Making a key file out of the resulting byte array is very easy. Since snk files are simply raw dumps of the key information needed to sign an assembly, simply writing the byte array out to a file will result in a usable .snk file.

This entire process can be found in the MS.StrongName.Keys::GenerateKeyPair method in MS.StrongNameKeys.cs. Boiled down to the essentials, with error checking removed, the process looks similar to the following:

/// <summary>
/// Generate a key and write it to a file
/// </summary>
/// <param name='keysize'>size, in bits, of the key to generate</param>
/// <param name='filename'>name of the file to write to</param>
/// <returns>true if the operation succeeded, false otherwise</returns>
private static bool GenerateKey(uint keysize, string filename)
{
Debug.Assert(!String.IsNullOrEmpty(filename));

// variables that hold the unmanaged key
IntPtr keyBlob = IntPtr.Zero;
long generatedSize = 0;

// create the key
bool createdKey = StrongName.Native.Generation.StrongNameKeyGenEx(null,
StrongName.Native.StrongNameKeyGenFlags.None, (int)keysize,
out keyBlob, out generatedSize);

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// if there was a problem, translate it and report it
if(!createdKey keyBlob IntPtr.Zero)
{
Exception error = Marshal.GetExceptionForHR(Utility.StrongNameErrorInfo());
Console.WriteLine('Error generating key: {0}', error.Message);
return false;
}
try
{
Debug.Assert(keyBlob != IntPtr.Zero);

// make sure the key size makes sense
Debug.Assert(generatedSize > 0 && generatedSize <= Int32.MaxValue);
if(generatedSize <= 0 generatedSize > Int32.MaxValue)
{
Console.WriteLine('Error while generating key');
return false;
}
// get the key into managed memory
byte[] key = new byte[generatedSize];
Marshal.Copy(keyBlob, key, 0, (int)generatedSize);

// write the key to the specified file
using(FileStream snkStream = new FileStream(filename, FileMode.Create, FileAccess.Write))
using(BinaryWriter snkWriter = new BinaryWriter(snkStream))
snkWriter.Write(key);
}
finally
{
// release the unmanaged memory the key resides in
if(keyBlob != IntPtr.Zero)
Utility.StrongNameFreeBuffer(keyBlob);
}

// everything is written ok
return true;
}

Changes to the Managed StrongName project

I've made quite a few changes to the managed strong name files this time around. The biggest change was my decision to drop support for building the tool under v1.1 of the framework as well as Whidbey. Most of the P/Invoke declarations will still work, but there were going to be enough difference in the msn.exe tool itself, that I didn't feel like it justified creating all the differences. The biggest fallout from this is that classes that used to be sealed with a private constructor are now all static classes. In addition, the expanded capabilities of the Console and String classes are used. The complete change list is:

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Modified

• StrongName.NativeVerification.cs
  • removed the private constructor and made into static class
• msnmsn.cs
  • added the -k mode
  • removed the private constructor and made into a static class
  • added an extra blank line of output in the output of msn
  • converted String.Length 0 checks into String.IsNullOrEmpty calls
  • always use Console.WindowWidth to figure out the size of the output
• msnmsn.resx
  • added extra resources to support key generation
• msnVerification.cs
  • removed the private constructor and made into a static class

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Added

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• StrongName.NativeGeneration.cs - P/Invoke declarations for StrongNameKeyGen and StrongNameKeyGenEx
• StrongName.NativeUtility.cs - P/Invoke declarations for StrongNameFreeBuffer and StrongNameErrorInfo
• msnGeneration.cs - Implementation of the -k option to msn, to allow for keys to be generated